Stephanie Simon Trade And Travel Declined After The Fall...

Answers to Background Reading Stephanie Simon 1: Trade and travel declined after the fall of Rome because routes for these were dangerous. This is because after Charlemagne died, his grandsons divided the kingdom into three parts that included Germany, Italy, France, and a part of Northern Italy. However, these three grandchildren ruled badly and invasions by Slavs, Magyars, and others contributed to the loss of the empire. This directly leads to the loss of travel and trade because the roads had no government to provide protection and maintaining the roads caused difficult traveling for trade. Also, lords were not interested in trade because their own manors could support themselves without it. 2: The first â€Å"Holy Roman Emperor† was Charlemagne and he received this title by the Pope Leo the third because he was able to unify most of western Europe and he gave the Pope his protection after the Roman Empire fell. 3: The difference between the Roman Empire and the Holy Roman Empire is that the latter was not an empire because it was just a loose union of Germanic tribal states, as well as not being holy or Roman. The Roman Empire was the first empire that lasted much more longer than the Holy Roman, and fell before the creation of the Holy Roman. Additionally, the Holy Roman the only successful attempt of â€Å"resurrecting† the fallen Roman Empire. 4: The connections between the Holy Roman Empire and the Church is that Pope Leo the third crowned Charlemagne the Emperor thatShow MoreRelatedManaging Information Technology (7th Edition)239873 Words   |  960 PagesChapter 12 Planning Information Systems Resources 519 Benefits of Information Resources Planning 519 Creating a Context for IS Resource Decisions Aligning IS and Business Goals 520 520 517 xi xii Contents Balancing the Trade-offs Between Standardization and Agility Obtaining IT Capital Investment Approvals 520 The Information Resources Planning Process 520 Assessing The Current Information Resources 521 Measuring IS Use and Attitudes 521 Reviewing the IS

Essay Samples Regarding Music for Dummies

Essay Samples Regarding Music for Dummies Music has the ability to make complete strangers feel like they've connected to a kindred soul. It is like yoga, it makes us happy and helps in keeping hormonal balance in the body, relief our body and mind and thus keeps us physically and mentally healthy. Sometimes, it is a way to hide from everything and everyone. In general, it has a lot of influence and has a lot of forms of expression. Delivering fantastic performance at work been demonstrated to be a role of ability, experience, reward and most importantly, motivation. When life induces an excessive amount of stress, an excessive amount of sound, and an excessive amount of rush, it's wondrous to set your headphones on, click play on your favourite playlist, and close your eyes, giving way to music. One's career ought to be suiting the purpose of somebody's life and passion besides relying on one's greatest skills. The very first of which can function as an introduction before the last close in the event the author wishes to talk about a couple of things before finishing off. You may use the samples as a foundation for working out how to write in the right style. Because of culture, a person is ready to interpret and understand the meaning of some other individual's behavior and actions. Such a complicated identity can't be condemned in a limited array of definitions made by cultural standards. You should do comparison studies to produce the ideal selection. Though there's no specific birth date of music you may mention different spans of evolution of music. Several innovators were involved with music in some manner. The audio industry can be a very hard place to break into, as it's subjective and very competitive. There are innumerous applications of music that individuals can produce. Speech serves as its primary instrument. Music may keep traditions alive. Music in all its forms is around us and the job is only to notice it and learn how to appreciate how it is able to be shared. Music preferences are held to supply advantaged information that may clarify different non-musical sections of conduct. Popularity is the thing that differentiates music among others activities which people enjoy. Of course music may also deliver poetic messages, or it may just be entertaining. You will need to wisely choose which music topic can help you bring out your abilities and knowledge in music. New Questions About Essay Samples Regarding Music When you are requested to compose an essay, attempt to discover some samples (models) of similar writing and learn how to observe the craft of the writer. You're able to acquire decent sample essays from our site. Our samples are intended to set you apart by aiding you to write superior papers and essays. Within this section you'll find samples of essays belonging to several essay types and manners of formatting. Writing an audio essay is an intimidating task since there are a lot of choices and you've got to talk about something which is difficult to explain in qualitative terms. Critical essay is a kind of academic writing. It can also open novel ways on how to approach the topic which can lead to further appreciation of it. Writing a critical essay gives us the opportunity to examine things from a different viewpoint. The essay should include specific information regarding Oberlin College. Our sample essay has a very simple but excellent introduction in which it demonstrates that the examinee has knowledge of this issue and clearly states the writer's position to establish the remainder of the essay. As you write your very own supplemental essays, be certain to prevent common supplemental essay mistakes. A well-structured essay has a superior introduction, body paragraphs that are simple to follow and connect with each other, and a great conclusion.

Bus512 free essay sample

Identify expenses on the income statement that are sales fulfillment expenses and divide them into cost pools. a. Warehouse Expenses: * warehouse personnel expenses, warehouse expenses (excluding personnel) * order entry expenses b. Delivery Expenses: Freight, delivery truck expenses 2. Find the rate for each cost pool. Activity cost pool| Cost | Activity processed| Average Rate| Warehouse Expense| $2,000,000| 80,000| $25. 00| Order Entry Expense | Manual Order| $800,000*20%=$160,000 | 16,000| $10. 00| | Order Line| $800,000*75%=$600,000| 150,000| $4. 00| | EDI| $800,000*5%=$40,000| 8,000| $5. 00| Delivery Expense| Normal Delivery| $450,000$2,400,000*15/16| 75,000| $36. 00| | | Total $2,700,000| | | | Desktop Delivery | $200,000$2,400,000*1/16| 5,000| $70. 00| | | Total $350,000| | | 3. Given the use of each resource in the sales fulfillment cycle, determine the profitability of each customer. Company A| Company B| Activity cost pool| # of Activities Processed| Cost| # of Activities Processed| Cost| Warehouse Expense| 200| $5,000| 200| $5,000| Order Entry Expense | Manual Order| 6 | $60| 100| $100| | Order Line| 60| $240| 180| $720| | EDI| 6| $30| 0| 0| Delivery Expense| Normal Delivery| 200| $7,200| 150| $5,400| | Desktop Delivery | 0| 0| 25| $1,750| Total Cost| $12,530| $12,970| Profitability | Company A| Company B| | Current | ABC| Current | ABC| SalesCost of items purchased| $103,000$85,000| $103,000$85,000| $104,000$85,000| $104,000$85,000| Gross Margin Warehousing, Distribution and Order Entry| $18,000$12,750| $18,000$12,530| $20,000$12,750| $20,000$12,970| Contribution to general and selling expenses, and profit| $5,250| $5,470| $6,250| $7,030| | $220| $780| 4. What should Dakota do based on the information you determined? Based on the results from using Activity-based Costing, it reflected a gap between what Dakota originally perceived and a more accurate calculation of company A and B’s profitability. We will write a custom essay sample on Bus512 or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Although the gap wasn’t significant in both company’s cases, it still reflects that there’s a hole in their accounting system that will lead to a potential great loss in the future if they don’t make related adjustments. On the other hand, it also reflects that the desktop delivery service Dakota’s providing with expectation to gain more profit isn’t really to its full extent yet. With this differentiated customer service they’re providing, they should promote and encourage more usage of this shipping method with each customer to gain their profitability. Also, to fully operate the warehouse personnel on a cost and time efficient way, EDI orders should be encouraged since it’s more convenient and requires less work than manual orders. These human capitals can be re-allocated for desktop delivery to generate more revenue. Collecting bills wise, Dakota also needs to shorten the lead-time it takes for company B to pay their bills, the average account receivable balance is $30,000 while the interest of 10% is left to Dakota to pay. The accumulated affect of this difference will bring a big impact on the net profit they’re earning.

Online Reputation Management

ONLINE REPUTATION MANAGEMENT Nearly everyone these days is clamoring for social media marketing services. Savvy business owners are looking to social media marketing for more  website traffic, increased brand recognition and loyalty, and myriad other benefits. But what about online reputation management? That’s one part of social media marketing that sometimes gets lost among the other benefits, which are often perceived as being more lucrative. How could you possibly know what everyone’s saying about your company in the far-reaching corners of the Internet? What does it even matter? Well, it matters plenty. One disgruntled customer can now be heard far and wide, often negating the effects of all the money you’ve spent on  your social media marketing campaign. Unsatisfied consumers won’t hesitate to log onto sites like Yelp, Angies List, and Google Maps, and write a negative review. If particularly vitriolic, one review can unspool the five positive reviews of your company posted directly above it. It might not be fair – that bad experience might have been the result of a bad-apple employee that has since been let go – but that review is there. People  visit these sites because they are particularly concerned with quality of product and experience. They’ve got a little bit of a watchdog complex in them. So when customers get on there and complain, they’re doing so to the most attentive audience possible. What does this mean? You’ve got to fight for your reputation. And you need to be proactive about it. Start a customer loyalty campaign that encourages recent clients to post positive reviews, or at least search for and respond (appropriately) to any negative reviews posted. These responses can be vital, because it gives readers a chance to see that your company cares enough to respond to consumer complaints. So if you haven’t started already, I highly recommend getting out there and claiming your company’s reputation and identity. That way, any negative review that finds itself posted will have less steam because your company will already be established as a clean, fair, and caring company.

The Storm By Kate Chopin Emotions in The Storm essays

The Storm By Kate Chopin Emotions in The Storm essays "The Storm" by Kate Chopin, is a tempestuous short story about a fling' between Calixta and Alcee. The two characters had been involved in a flirtation years before, but were now both married to other people. The storm concerns the sexual tensions and restraints experienced in the Victorian era, while also "making a statement about human's natural tendency towards sexual passion" (Bartee, unknown). The title itself gives the reader the first impression that something turbulent is being suggested. In literature a storm is symbolic of conflicts and high energies usually associated with passions and turmoil. Robert Wilson suggests that the title is symbolically feminine, and as the storm is attributed to nature, can be seen as a direct symbol of female passions and sexuality. This image is a recurring theme throughout the Calixta is introduced to us as a housewife, busy doing chores. Her husband, Bobinot has gone to the local store with their son, Bibi, and when the storm starts, they decide to shelter there. There are some critics that suggest that Bobinot is actually staying out of the way of his wife as he is aware of the sexual tension and repression she feels within her marriage (Wilson, 2) but I found that difficult to see in the text of the story. But Wilson's comments on Calixta, that her sexuality is repressed by the constraints of her marriage and society's view of women, represented in this passage by the housework", (2) is indicative of the feminine viewpoint of the era, where women did suppress their sexualities and passions in good works, housework or some other time consuming activity, which prevented them from thinking about their repression. Calixta is hot, and we do not know if this is because of the storm or her own torment of emotions and sexual frustrations. She loosens her white sacque' at her throat, which suggests a form of offer...

How College Students (and Grads) Can Gain Strategic Thinking Skills

How College Students (and Grads) Can Gain Strategic Thinking Skills Strategic thinking ranks high on almost every employer’s list of desirable traits. For example, recruiters in a Bloomberg Business report ranked strategic thinking as the 4th most important trait - but also one of the hardest skills to find in job applicants. In a Robert Half Management survey, 86% of CFOs considered the ability to think strategically to be important – with 30% listing it as â€Å"mandatory,† and 56% stating that it was â€Å"nice to have.† Unfortunately, the Robert Half survey also revealed that only 46% of employers provide any type of professional development. So, college students – and employees – need to take the initiative to develop these skills on their own. What is strategic thinking? The definition of strategic thinking may vary based on the person providing the explanation, but in its broadest sense, the term refers to the ability to identify critical situations, analytically and creatively evaluate relevant information, and determine the consequences of choosing a particular action. Dr. A.J. Marsden, an assistant professor of psychology and human services at Beacon College in Leesburg, Fla, tell ThoughtCo, â€Å"Generally speaking, strategic thinking is a cognitive process in which individuals think about, assess, view, and achieve success in their own and others’ lives.† She adds, â€Å"It is knowing how to assess a situation and pick the best option.† In a workplace setting, strategic thinking can help companies focus on what’s important. DeLynn Senna is the executive director of Robert Half Finance Accounting, and the author of a blog post on boosting strategic thinking skills. Senna tells ThoughtCo, â€Å"Strategic thinking involves finding ways to help the business prosper and going beyond the task level.† While some people erroneously assume that management and senior executives are responsible for critical thinking, Senna says, â€Å"It’s something that can impact every level of an organization, and is important for those entering the working world to develop early in their careers.† However, there’s more than just one component to strategic thinking. According to Blake Woolsey, executive vice president of the Mitchell PR firm, there are 8 characteristics that separate strategic thinkers from nonstrategic thinkers: Future-based vs. reactiveCurious vs. isolatedLong-term focus vs. short-term focusWilling to take risks vs. cautiousAble to prioritize vs. unable to prioritizeNimble vs. inflexibleLife-long learner vs. satisfiedCreative vs. predictable    Why strategic thinking is so important This trait helps individuals make better decisions so they can be successful on a personal and professional level. â€Å"Strategic thinking helps individuals focus, prioritize, and be more proactive in addressing specific issues and situations,† Marsden explains. â€Å"The main advantage to strategic thinking is that it helps people achieve their goals more quickly and efficiently -  it focuses on problem solving and creating a clear path to your goal.† Voltaire, the great French philosopher, once said, â€Å"Judge a man by his questions rather than his answers. Strategic thinking also includes the ability to ask the right questions. Dr. Linda Henman, author of â€Å"Challenge the Ordinary,† and â€Å"How to Move Beyond Indecision and Good Intentions,† tells ThoughCo, â€Å"When we start with ‘what’ and ‘why,’ we can get to the core of the issue we need to discuss or the problem we need to solve.† However, she believes that starting with the â€Å"how† question can lead to being distracted by methods.   And using the what/why principle, Henman says there are five specific advantages of strategic thinking: Strategic thinking helps us zero in on the critical few as we put aside the trivial many.Strategic thinking helps us keep a global perspective, which in turn, leads to dispassionate, logical thinking, not emotional reactions.When we think strategically, we see patterns and anticipate consequences.We can prioritize better when we think strategically.Strategy keeps us focused on the future, not the present or past. It’s easy to see why companies want employees with these skills. An organization is only as good as its employees, and it needs workers with the ability to make a significant impact. â€Å"Employers want big-picture thinkers with strong business acumen,† Senna says. â€Å"Hiring managers look for professionals who can use their expertise to develop and execute strategies and projects to help the business grow, increase profits, and maintain costs.†    How to develop strategic thinking skills Fortunately, strategic thinking skills can be developed, and there are a variety of settings and situations that provide opportunities for growth in this area. Senna offers the following tips: Volunteer to lead a project team, including one with colleagues from other departments. This can help you gain diverse perspectives and exposure to different problem-solving techniques.Look for training opportunities offered by your company, an external organization, or even a college class or webinar on the subject. Professional industry associations can be a good place to start to find this.Pair up with a mentor who can walk you through different decision-making processes and help you present your ideas to department leaders. This step can be especially valuable for those launching their careers.Tap the power of data. Learn how to turn business intelligence into actionable recommendations for the business. Marsden includes four additional tips: Be proactive about researching and gathering information that will help you make decisions in the future.   Read journals and articles that will help you be more informed. And when you don’t fully understand something, ask questions.  Constantly question your own opinions.  How did they form? What influences them? Are they logical? Be open-minded to the opinions of others.Learn how to embrace conflict and how to use it to come up with a creative solution.   Surround yourself with people who have different worldviews. This gives you (and them) an opportunity to learn from each other.Be sure to take cognitive breaks and allow your brain to rest.  Take time off for a brain break and put yourself in a different type of environment. This will help you develop perspective.

Diffusion and Osmosis Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Diffusion and Osmosis - Lab Report Example The cell and its extracellular environments are fluid in that concentrations of substances dissolved in it vary. Depending on varying concentration of the substances dissolved in water, be it extracellular or intracellular, dissolved substances or water move from one compartment to another directed by physical principles of gradients. To accomplish this, the cell utilizes the processes of osmosis and diffusion as appropriate. These phenomena can be visualized outside the cell by simulating these in vitro. Since cell membrane is a semipermeable membrane and exchanges occur through this, these experiments must utilize a construct of the semipermeable membrane that can be made with a commercially available dialysis tubing and bag. These membranes have microscopic pores through which small molecules like water can pass, but larger molecules, such as sugar cannot pass through them. Thus through this molecular net, solutions of different solute concentrations can be observed to pass in a m easurable fashion. This experiment has been designed to prove the hypothesis of the mechanisms of osmosis and diffusion through such a semipermeable membrane. Diffusion is defined as the movement of molecules from a site of higher concentration to that of a lower concentration. Technically speaking, this difference in concentration creates a concentration gradient, and the steepness of the gradient determines the rate of diffusion. In an attempt to find out the reason as to why it occurs, it can be attributed to a great deal of space between the molecules of all substances that are candidates for diffusion. Liquids have moderate intermolecular space. Moreover, all molecules are in a state of constant random movement so that they collide and intermingle. It is expected that in solids diffusion would occur slowly for tight packing of the molecules. Liquids and gases would diffuse freely because their molecules are spaced widely. Thus, it can be stated that any solute will tend to uniformly occupy the entire space available to it. This movement, known as diffusion, is due to the spontaneous Brownian random movement that all molecules experie nce. The net result of diffusion is the movement of substances according to their difference in concentrations, from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration. Diffusion is an effective way for substances to move short distances. Diffusion across a membrane has no preferential direction; it can occur from the outside of the cell toward the inside or from the inside of the cell toward the outside. It is however determined the extend of permeability through a membrane, which in the case of a living cell is the protein-lipid-protein plasma membrane, and therefore, diffusion across the membrane usually implies that the diffusing solute enters the lipid bilayer to cross it, the solute's solubility in a lipid solvent compared with its solubility in water is important in determining its permeability through it. Hydrophilic substances, such as ions and sugars, do not interact well with the lipid component of the membrane, hence would diffuse across the membrane more slow ly. This is, however, not applicable in physical membrane such as a dialysis membrane (Campbell NA, Reece JB, Mitchell LG., 1999). If equal volumes of pure water and a strong sugar solution are taken, the pure water will have more water molecules and would have higher water concentration that a sugar

Marketing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Marketing - Assignment Example Brands aimed at the high tier market moved on to defensive mechanisms like slashing prices, holding discreet sales or moving into completely new product lines even as they battled massive debts and decreasing popularity. While fashion brands like Ralph Lauren, Donna Karan, Calvin Klein, Dolce & Gabbana and Armani were the pioneers in introducing secondary mid-priced brands for a secondary target market, others brands soon followed suit. However the diversification strategy was a double edged sword, with the perception of people being either that the brands were diluting their essence and the ‘luxury status’ that they stood for or that there are simply too many, too outrageously priced luxury brands in a market where they shouldn’t be. Cheap chic and e-shopping have become the reigning trends in the industry and as the local customer becomes more price savvy and inclined towards individual fashion choices, luxury brands have become something of a frivolous fantasy for the masses. But humans naturally gravitate towards things which sparkle and which may provide them with a kind of prestige and glamour; they just don’t want it to be a diluted version of old luxury or completely out of there budget. We are launching a new clothing label for the people who want the good things in life, want them to be available with convenience yet delivering a unique and customized experience with the purchase. BlackSilk © clothing label will carry items like cocktail dresses, semi-casual evening wear, formal wear for the work environment. The core strength of the brand will be good looking, good quality products with the option of customization and ease of availability through a completely integrated online store. The cost structure will be flexible, with a certain sum set for the template clothing and extra cost for any other additions the customer might want to make. The emphasis will be to merge the look, style and grace of the ‘roaring twenti es’ with the wearablity and sensible use as required by the fast paced modern life of the 21st century. The Core Value for customers will be the affordable luxury while the Actual Products will be BlackSilk © clothes, which will have a high quality and a focus on the aesthetics along with the option of customization such as our very crucial offering of Tres grande option for customers who are sizes 14 and above. This is keeping in line with the recent trends in the American health and lifestyle which show a shift towards higher weight and body mass in the general population. We would want to offer the same style and convenience to a size 2 or size 16 customer and make them feel comfortable with the choices we have on offer. The Augmented product offering would include getting customer feedback and giving them the option of changing their customization options within 30 days of purchase (exclusive of delivery time) or having the same kind of options replicated on a different template dress for a discounted price. The market segmentation for the clothing line will be done on the basis of demographics and psychographics with a niche marketing strategy initially which would be converted to a differentiated strategy once we have reached a core group of customers and the level of recourses are feasible for that. Primary Target market: Age: 21-45 Income: Varying;

Philosophy Paper Essay Example for Free

Philosophy Paper Essay One of the most heated debates that troubled the church in the Middle Ages was the question of universals. This question goes back as far as Plato’s Forms. It has to do with the relationship between the abstract and general concepts that we have in our minds (what is the relationship between Chair with a capitol â€Å"C† and chair with a small â€Å"c†? ). And from this, two radical viewpoints emerged, realists and the nominalists. The realists followed Plato in insisting that each universal is an entity in its own right, and exists independently of the individual things that happen to participate in it. An extreme form of realism flourished in the church from the ninth to the twelfth centuries. Among its advocates were John Scotus, Erigena, Anselm and William of Champeaux. On the opposite side were the nominalists and they held that universals were just names, and therefore, have no objective status apart from that which is fabricated in the mind. Nominalists, such as Gabriel Biel and William of Occam (see O section), said that the individual is the only existing substance. Unfortunately, their treatment of nominalism removed religion almost entirely from the area of reason and made it a matter of faith beyond the comprehension of reason. 1 And here lies the significance of the French theologian Peter Abelard (1079-1142). Between the two extremes, Peter Abelard proposed a more moderate form of nominalism. Though critical of the idea of the separate existence of universals, he nevertheless believed that resemblances among particular things justified the use of universals for establishing knowledge. More specifically, Abelard proposed that we ground the similarities among individual things without reifying their universal features, by predicating general terms in conformity with concepts abstracted from experience. This resolution (which would later come to be known as conceptualism) of the traditional problem of universals gained wide acceptance for several centuries, until doubts about the objectivity and reality of such mental entities as concepts came under serious question. Thomas Aquinas favored a moderate realism which rejected the view that universals exist apart from individual entities in favor of the view that they do indeed exist, but only in actual entities. 2 Anaximander (Milesian School): Anaximander (610-547/6 B. C. ) was one of the three key figures that comprised the Milesian School (the three prominent figures associated with the Milesian School is Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes). Together, they worked on problems concerning the nature of matter and the nature of change, and they each proposed a different material as the primary principal. 3 Anaximander seemed to be quite modern in his view of reality. He believed that the world was cylindrical like a drum, and that the earth rested on nothing. He also invented an undefined non-substance, called the apeiron, a neutral, indeterminate stuff that was infinite in amount. Anaximenes (Milesian School): Anaximenes (546 B. C. ), the other member of the Milesian School, returned back to the idea that everything derives from a single substance, but suggested that substance was air. Though it is likely his choice was motivated by wanting to maintain a balance between the two views of his predecessors, Anaximenes did provide solid grounds for his choosing; first, air, has the advantage of not being restricted to a specific and defined nature as water, and therefore more capable of transforming itself into the great variety of objects around us. Second, air is a more likely source of this variety than Anaximander’s apeiron which seems too empty and vacuous a stuff to be capable of giving rise to such a variety and profusion. 4 Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury: In (452 A. D. ), twenty-two years after Augustine’s death, Rome fell, bringing on a period of conquest and chaos, and degree of order was ultimately realized through the emergence of feudalism. The church, which had managed to survive the social and political upheaval, gradually assumed responsibilities that previously had been relegated to the civil government. This involvement in government led in turn to the secularization of the church. Bishops became ministers of the state, and church dignitaries became warriors. In the tenth and eleventh centuries, many within the church were so involved with the secular world that a movement led to the emergence of the monastic life as a force within the church. Those who wanted to escape the temptations of the secular world and pursue holiness were naturally drawn to the monasteries and among those who followed was Anselm (1033-1109), the archbishop of Canterbury. The greatest Christian thinker between Augustine and Thomas Aquinas was Anselm (1033-1109). He was born to a wealthy family in northern Italy, whom, to their disappointment, left home in (1056) to fully dedicate his life to God. Following a period of travel, he arrived at the Norman Abbey at Bec, where he took his monastic vows in (1060). Within a few years, he became prior of the abbey, abbot in (1078), and then archbishop in (1093), which he held until his death. His writings range from treatises on logic to an explanation of the divine inner logic of the atonement in Cur deus homo. Anselm stood in the tradition of Augustine and Platonic realism. 5 Following the tradition of Augustine, he held that faith precedes and leads to understanding, and, like many other medieval thinkers he drew no sharp distinction between philosophy and theology. In his famous ontological argument for the existence of God, Anselm presents a defense based on the fact that it is self-contradictory to deny that there exists a greatest possible being. 6 He claims that the more universality, the more reality. And from here it follows that if God is the most universal being, he is also the most real; if He is the absolutely universal being, he is also the absolutely real being, ens realissimum. He has, therefore, according to the conception of Him, not only the comparatively greatest reality, but also the absolute reality. A reality in which no greater can be thought. 7 Aquinas, Thomas: By common consent the greatest philosophical theologian of the Middle Ages was Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). Everything about him was big. In his later years his voluminous writings, massive in scope, won him the title of the Angelic Doctor. His life was dedicated to the intellectual defense and propagation of the faith, as he understood it. It was during his teaching career (1252) in Paris that Aquinas, being drawn into the critical debates of his day, started battling the objections posed against Aristotelianism and its place in the university. By this time, Plato was known only through the imperfect translations of the Timaeus, the Phaedo, and the Meno. Islamic Jewish thinkers were much better acquainted with Aristotle, and for nearly two centuries they had been wrestling with questions posed by Aristotelianism to religious faith. For Aquinas and his Christian contemporaries the issue was doubly acute. On the one hand, there were questions posed by Aristotle’s way of thinking. On the other hand, there were the answers already given by Islamic and Jewish scholars which were hardly acceptable to a Christian thinker. Aquinas decided to face the problem head on. He made his own study of Aristotle, on whom he wrote extensively. He also made his own study of non-Christian thinkers. He subjected all ideas to rigorous scrutiny, giving due recognition to the truth of ideas, wherever they came from, but giving his own evaluation of every issue, point by point. In all, Aquinas produced about a hundred different writings. His work ranged from philosophical commentaries to hymns. 8 Aquinas’ main works are two massive Summae or compends of theology and philosophy. The Summa contra Gentiles was designed as a textbook for missionaries, and the Summa Theologiae has been described as the highest achievement of medieval theological systematization and is still the accepted basis of modern Reformed theology. In Aquinas’ proofs (what later came to be known as the Cosmological and Teleological arguments), certain facts about nature are compelling evidences of God’s existence. He argues, accordingly, that nothing can adequately account for the fact of motion or change. Rejecting the idea that change or motion is simply an ultimate, mysterious fact of nature neither requiring nor permitting any explanation except God, its Unmoved Prime Mover. Furthermore, in his five arguments, Aquinas suggests that the Christian belief in God is completely consistent with the world as we know it. Aquinas’ arguments, known also as the Five Ways are sometimes referred to as the proofs of the existence of God. But this is not necessarily correct because Aquinas did not try to prove the existence of God by rational argument, but to provide a rational defense for an already existing faith in God. His primary reason for believing in the existence in God is God’s revelation of Himself. Aquinas expects his readers to share the same faith. He does not expect that he will have to prove anything to them first. This point is important because many critics accuse believers of grounding their faith in outdated arguments, such as Thomas Aquinas. It is proper, therefore, to respond to such criticisms by pointing out that they are based on a superficial reading and on a serious misunderstanding of how individuals come to faith. 9 The basic principal guiding Aquinas throughout the Five Proofs is the principal of analogy, which holds the world as we know it mirrors God, its creator. The structure of each of Aquinas’ proofs is quite similar. Each depends on tracing a casual sequence back to its ultimate origin and identifying this ultimate origin with God. The first begins with the observation that things in the world are in motion or change. Second is the concept of causation. The third concerns the existence of contingent beings. The fourth deals with human values, and lastly, is the teleological argument, in which Aquinas explains how the world shows clear traces of intelligent design. Natural processes and objects seem to be adapted with certain definite objectives in mind. They seem to have purpose. They seem to have been designed. Arguing from this observation, Aquinas concludes that it is rational to believe in God. 10 Aristotle: Aristotle’s thought, like his mentor Plato, embodied the concept of arete, which taught that human excellence in all things was an important goal that should direct human purposes. For Aristotle, that excellence ideally exemplified the defining quality of human nature, the pursuit of reason. Attracted by science and believing that the universe could be explained, Aristotle greatly valued the work of Thales of Miletus, and accepted his concept that the physical universe operated rationally and in a way that was knowable to human beings. From Anaximander, Aristotle took the view that a balance of force existed in nature that made things what they were. Aristotle was also knowledgeable about the atomic theory of Parmenides and was intrigued by the question of what was stable and what was changing. Indeed, these Greek scientists had a significant influence on Aristotle’s intellectual search to examine and explain reality. 11 For Aristotle, the world in which we live is the world that we experience through our senses. Unlike those who followed Plato, Aristotle believed that we live in an objective order of reality, a world of objects that exist external to us and our knowing of them. Through our senses and our reason, human beings can come to know these objects and develop generalizations about their structure and function. Truth is a correspondence between the person’s mind and external reality. Theoretical knowledge based on human observation is the best guide to human behavior. And, while human beings have various careers, they all share the most important factor, the exercise of rationality. Reason gives human beings the potentiality of leading lives that are self-determined. Congruent with his metaphysical and epistemological perspective, Aristotle’s ethical theory portrays the good life as that of happiness (eudaimonia). He believed that the ultimate good for the human being was happiness, activity in accordance to virtue. The virtuous life is one in which actions are part of a consciously formulated plan that takes a mean, a middle ground course, avoiding extremes. 12 For example, true courage would be the choice that avoids the extremes of cowardice and rashness. And what decides the right course to take is the virtue of prudence (phronesis). Good is the aim of every action but, given the fact that goods can be ordered in relation to one another, there must be a highest good to which practical wisdom directs us. And if the possession of any good is what makes us happy to some extent, the possession of the highest good is the highest happiness, the ultimate goal of all our actions. 13 At this point, it is difficult to resist the thought that Aristotle’s notion of the intellectual life being the gateway to happiness and virtue is not an shallow one. But, though there are some elements in his presentation that are unclear, this much is clear; that this happiness, which is the possession of the good, is ultimately an act of contemplation, or of  beholding, the good. But to contemplate the good is to enter into union with it. Therefore, if contemplating on god means entering into union with the life of the gods, this is the highest activity of man and his ultimate happiness. The conclusion of the Ethics is one with the Metaphysics, in which the â€Å"divine element† in a man coincides with the â€Å"possession† of god by an act of thought, called contemplation, which is the â€Å"most pleasant and best† we can perform. In Eudemian Ethics, Aristotle says, What choice, then, or possession of the natural goods – whether bodily goods, wealth, friends, or other things – will most produce the contemplation of God, that choice or possession is best; this is the noblest standard, but any that through deficiency or excess hinders one from the contemplation and service of God is bad; this man possess in his soul, and this is the best standard for the soul. 14 With statements like this one can’t help but wonder what Aristotle’s response would have been if he would have had the opportunity to serve the one true God, who is worthy of such adoration and praise. What’s more, Aristotle categorized virtues as either moral or intellectual. Moral virtue, though not easy to define, is a habit by which the individual exercises a prudent choice, one that a rational person would make. Moral virtues tend to moderation, falling between excess and inhibition. They focus on the concrete actions a person performs and the measured sense he has regarding them: â€Å"to feel them at the right times, with reference to the right objects, towards the right people, with the right motive, and in the right way. † A good action thus exhibits due proportion, neither excessive nor defective, but midway between them. This is Aristotle’s doctrine of the mean. Peculiarly, a virtuous action is one that lies between too much and too little. To give another example, in regard to the feeling of shame, modesty is the mean between bashfulness and shamelessness. Not every virtue, however, is a mean, and so not every action is to be measured in this way. Nonetheless, every action should and can at least be measured in its rightness by the virtue of prudence or, in a larger sense, by â€Å"practical wisdom. †15. Furthermore, one of Aristotle’s most significant contributions to the Western world is his Poetics. His earlier works, Physics and Metaphysics contain important statements about art and nature, and Rhetoric, written after Poetics, distinguishes rhetoric as a practical art and has had a strong influence on literary criticism. His Poetics, nonetheless, is particularly important because Aristotle is addressing Plato’s doctrines on ideas and forms he came to disagree with. In Poetics, it was Aristotle’s intention to classify and categorize systematically the kinds of literary art, beginning with epic and tragic drama. Unfortunately, not all of the poetics survived, and it breaks off before the discussion of comedy. Nonetheless, our sense of Aristotle’s method is established. He is the first critic to attempt a systematic discourse of literary genres. 16 Augustine (Saint), of Hippo: One of the greatest thinkers of not only the early church, but of all time is Augustine of Hippo (354-430 A. D. ). His writings laid the foundation not only for Western theology but for later philosophy as well. His three books On Free Will (388-395), set out a doctrine of creation, evil and the human will which was a superior alternative to the type of thinking that had attracted so many to Gnosticism and Manichaean dualism. His response to the Donatist schism in the church set the pattern for the Western doctrine of the church. His writings on the subject of Pelagianism clarified, as no one before him and few after him, the crucial issues in the question of grace and free will. His major theological writings include On the Trinity (399-419), which presented better models for thinking about the Trinity than those of the Greek fathers. Augustine’s book On the City of God (413-416) was a reply to those who blame the church for the fall of Rome, in which it gave both a panoramic view of history and a theology of history in terms of the basic conflict between the divine society and the earthly society. 17 Interestingly, Augustine put forth a theory of time that Bertrand Russell would later pronounce superior to earlier views and much better than the subjective theory of Kant. Augustine’s account of how we can learn language provided Wittgenstein’s starting point for his Philosophical Investigations. In answering skepticism Augustine put forth an argument which anticipated Descartes’ cognito ergo sum without falling into the pitfalls commonly associated with the argument. Furthermore, Augustine believed that philosophical reflection may correct mistaken notions, lead to a grasp of truth, and serve to clarify belief. But rational reflection is not a substitute for the beatific vision of God. For it is the apprehension of God alone which transforms human life and alone satisfies our deepest needs. Though Augustine was deeply influenced by Platonism and Neoplatonism, he never was simply a Platonist. His view of the soul stands in the Platonic tradition, but he repudiated the doctrines of pre-existence and transmigration. Augustine’s view of the transcendent spiritual reality might also be said to have affinities with Plato, but Augustines approach was not an attempt to erect an edifice of Christian theology on either Platonic or Neoplatonic foundations. Rather, it was to state the Christian worldview in a theological and philosophical system that cohered as a unified whole. 18 (B) (back to top) Bentham, Jeremy: In nineteenth century Victorian England two contrasting systems were developed by Jeremy Bentham and Herbert Spencer. Utilitarians Bentham and John Stuart Mill applied naturalistic presuppositions in their worldview. Herbert Spencer applied the concept of evolution. And Ernest Mach prepared the way for logical positivism in his strongly anti-metaphysical scientific approach. The antithesis of the Kantian ideal is utilitarianism, an ethical theory founded by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832). Bentham was a hedonist. Taking the good to be pleasure, Bentham proposed a new model for morality in his principal of utility, which holds that â€Å"Actions are right in proportion to the amount of happiness it brings; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. 19 Utilitarianism is a form of consequentialism. The ends justify the means since actions are judged on the results they bring, not on the person’s intentions or motives. For Kant, the end result was not important in determining the rightness of an action, rather, it was motive. 20 In its simplest form utilitarianism teaches that the right action is the one that promotes the greatest happiness. Modern utilitarianism dates from Thomas Hobbes in the seventeenth century, but its antecedents date as far back as (341-270 B. C. ) to the philosophy of Epicurus of Samos. The theory of utilitarianism actually held little influence until John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) who popularized the term and produced the classical Victorian exposition of the doctrine. Mill used the principal of utility to critique all social, political, and religious institutions. Anything that did not promote the greatest happiness of the greatest number was to be challenged and reformed. For this reason social and religious institutions that curtail individual liberty should be reformed. This is necessary, argued Mill, in order for freedom of belief, association and expression to be safeguarded. 21. Different conceptions of happiness separated Mill’s version â€Å"Better a Socrates dissatisfied than a pig satisfied,† which recognized qualitative differences between different kinds of pleasure, from Bentham’s forthright attempt to reduce all questions of happiness to the mere presence of pleasure or pain. Bentham’s version aims to render the basic concepts of ethics susceptible of comparison and measurement, but this was not the goal in Mill’s presentation of the system. 22 A hedonistic utilitarian like Bentham would say that the sole consideration is the quantity of pleasure that an action produces. A problem with this approach, however, (as if it wasn’t obvious) is that it draws no distinction in principal between an evening spent at the bars or one spent having quality time with your spouse. It all depends upon the tastes of the person. Berkley, George: George Berkeley (Irish, 1685-1753) was one of the three greatest British empiricists of the eighteenth century (Locke and Hume being the other two). Though his father was an Englishman, Berkley always considered himself Irish. He was an early subjectivist idealist philosopher, who argued that all qualities of objects exist only in the mind of the perceiver. His famous theory is often summarized, esse est percipi, â€Å"to be is to be perceived,† and is still important to modern apologetics (due to the method he used in demonstrating the necessity of an eternal Perceiver). Berkley’s argument was that the phenomena of visual sensation can all be explained without presupposing the reality of the external material substances. Interestingly, Berkley was also a bishop of an Anglican church, and was the only important philosopher to visit America before 1900. He came hoping to start a missionary training college for evangelizing to the Indian tribes of New England. 23 Berkley disagreed with Locke in that there is a material substance lying behind and supporting perceptions. He also disagreed with his treatment of the representative theory of perception, that material objects are perceived mediately by means of ideas, and the mind does not perceive the material object directly, but only through the medium of the ideas formed by the senses and reflection on them. â€Å"If we know only our ideas,† reasoned Berkeley â€Å"then we can never be sure whether any of them are really like the material qualities of objects, since we can never compare the ideas with them. † For that reason, he denied the ultimate existence of material substance believing that the Spirit is the only metaphysical reality. 24 (D) (back to top) Derrida, Jacques: Jacques Derrida (1930-2004) was a French literary critic and founder of the school called deconstructionism. His (1966) lecture Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences delivered at Johns Hopkins University, played a significant role in ushering American critics into the era of poststructuralism. Particular influences on his thought include Nietzsche, Heidegger, and Freud. He wrote prolifically, and had a great influence on not only literary criticism but in sociology, linguistics, and psychology as well. Derrida regarded philosophical and literary texts as already containing the seeds of their own deconstruction. This means that in any work the author unwittingly includes contradictions, blind spots, and unjustified assumptions. The main purpose and task of the deconstructionist, according to Derrida, is to simply bring these contradictions to the surface. 25 Beginning in the Victorian Age, a paradigm shift slowly spread throughout Europe that set the groundwork for modern theory. Unlike the revolutionary movements of the Renaissance and Romanticism, which were in part reactionary, this paradigm shift that marked a radical break from the past had little precedent. Nonetheless, it marked a rejection of long-held metaphysical and aesthetic beliefs that most theorists from Plato to Coleridge took for granted. Until the modern period, most of the great Western philosophers have been logocentric in their thinking, and Derrida is one of the ones responsible for this definite break from the past, bringing forth the notion that meaning is never fixed. Dr. Louis Markos, a Christian Professor at Houston Baptist University, made some interesting comments on Derrida in one of his lectures on deconstructionism. He said that Derrida reads the history of Western metaphysics as a continual search for a logos or original presence. This logos is sought because it promises to give meaning and purpose to all things, to act as a universal center. Behind this search is a desire for a higher reality (or full presence). Western philosophy since Plato has simply renamed this presence and shifted this center without breaking from its centering impulse. Even Saussure’s structuralism sought a center, and though he broke from the old metaphysic, he still used its terminology and binaries. Furthermore, Derrida deconstructs all attempts to posit a center or to establish a system of binaries. Instead, he puts in their place a â€Å"full free play of meaning. †26 Democritus (see Leucippus): Descartes, Rene: The first great continental rationalist27 was Rene’ Descartes (Frenchman, 1596-1650). For it was he who defined the terms and laid down the agenda for the continental rationalist school of thought. But in a sense, the world that Descartes produced, by the exercise of pure reason, was a fairly straight forward affair – Descartes does preserve â€Å"the self† in a recognizable form, as well as both â€Å"God† (even though it is not a terribly human sort of God) and the material world in a broadly speaking recognizable form (even though it might be a material world deprived of some of its more vivid and colorful attributes). Nevertheless, the worlds created by the application of the procedure of rationalism start from some self-evident propositions (like Euclid’s geometry) and then carry out processes of absolute, straight forward deduction from these self-evident propositions and what that led to in the case of Spinoza and Leibniz is something very far removed in both of them from the ordinary understanding of the world. To some extant, Descartes, by comparison with them, is in the business of saving the appearances. Whereas both Spinoza and Leibniz say that what the world is really like is very different from what it appears to the ordinary person to be. Nonetheless, there is still in both cases (Descartes and Spinoza and Leibniz) an underlying reality that philosophy can tell us something about reality even if common observation cannot. 28 His two chief philosophical works were Discourse on Method (1637) and his Meditations (1641). His ideal and method were modeled on mathematics. He is sometimes portrayed as the first modern philosopher due to his break with the traditional Scholastic-Aristotelian philosophy and for introducing a new mechanistic science. 29 In refurbishing the medieval proofs for the existence of God he was drawing upon the legacy of the Middle Ages. Like the Medieval philosophers, he was interested in metaphysics, and to the end of his life, Descartes remained a nominal Catholic. But there is a sense in which Descartes represents a new departure. Descartes (so it seems) was interested in God not for his own sake, but the world’s. God is invoked as a kind of dues ex machine to guarantee the validity of our thoughts about the world. 30 Nonetheless, Descartes takes his place as a Christian thinker by resting cognitive truth on the personal truth of God, and laying the blame for error not on God but on the exercise of the human will. Descartes successors eventually lost their reliance for truth. George Berkeley retains it by tracing directly to God all the ideas we receive from outside the mind and Leibniz by making each mind mirror eternal truths in the mind of God. But many Enlightenment thinkers, and many empiricists today who share some of Descartes’ rational ideals or the correspondence theory of truth, talk to truth independently of God as if it were a self-sustaining ideal and as if human reason were a purely objective and impersonal activity. Descartes’ failure was not in the relation he saw of truth to God, but in the lack of relation he saw between man’s rational capacity for knowing truth and his personality as a whole. 31 (F) (back to top) Fibonacci: His real name was Leonardo Pisano (Italian, 1170-1250) but he is better known by his nickname â€Å"Fibonacci† (filius Bonacci), which means â€Å"son of Bonacci. † A striking example of Fibonaccis genius is his observation that the classification of irrationals given by Euclid in Book X of the Elements did not include all irrationals. Fibonacci is probably best known for his â€Å"rabbit problem. † Leonardo Fibonacci began the study of this sequence by posing the following problem in his book, Liber Abaci, â€Å"How many pairs of rabbits will be produced in a year, beginning with a single pair? †32 The analogy that starts with one pair of rabbits who give birth to a new pair from the first month on, and every succeeding pair gives birth to a new pair in the second month after their birth. Fibonacci shows that this leads to the sequences 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, and so on. As one can see, each term is the sum of the two previous terms. For example, 2 + 3 = 5 and 3 + 5 = 8, and the farther and farther you go to the right of this sequence, the ratio of a term to the one before it will get closer and closer to the Golden Ratio. Additionally, this same principal also applies to that of the Golden rectangle. The connection between the Golden Ratio and the Fibonacci series is fascinating, and is very simple to understand. If you take a Golden Rectangle, and cut off a square with side lengths equal to the length shorter to the rectangle side, then what remains is another Golden Rectangle. This could go on forever. You can just keep cutting off these big squares and getting smaller and smaller Golden Rectangles. Consequently, the idea with the Fibonacci series is to do the same thing in reverse. You start with a square (1 by 1), find the longer side, and then add a square of that size to the whole thing to form a new rectangle. Therefore, when we start with a (1 by 1) square the longest side is one, so we add another square to it. As a result, we have accumulated a (2 by 1) rectangle. Then the longest side is 2, so we connect a (2 by 2) square to our (2 by 1) rectangle to get a (3 by 2) rectangle. As this continues, the sides of the rectangle will always be a successive Fibonacci number, and eventually the rectangle will be very close to a Golden Rectangle. To translate in more illustrative terms, the ratio of two successive numbers in the Fibonacci series, as aforementioned, if divided by each number before it, will result in the following series of numbers; 1/1 = 1, 2/1 = 2, 3/2 = 1. 5, 5/3 = 1. 666, 8/5 = 1. 6, 13/8 = 1. 625, 21/13 = 1. 61538. The ratio that is settling down to a particular value is the golden ratio or the golden number, which has a value of approximately 1. 618034. 33 Fichte, Johann Gottlieb: Johann Gottlieb Fichte (German, 1762-1814) was one of the major figures in German philosophy in between Kant and Hegel. He was regarded as one of Kant’s most talented philosophers, but later developed a system of his own transcendental philosophy called the Wissenschaftslehre. Fichte had immense influence on his contemporaries, especially during his professorship at the University of Jenna, a position he held for five years (1794-1799) before taking up a profes.

New Classics of the Horror Film Genre Essay -- Pleasures of Horror Fil

Dracula. Frankenstein. Godzilla. These monsters no longer strike fear into the hearts of viewers as they once did. Formerly the villains of the classic "monster movie," these relics, who now represent all that is archaic in horror film history. The monster movie of the past makes way for the thriller or slasher movie of the present, while the monster villain gives its role to the deranged, psychotic serial killer. Friday the 13th series, Nightmare on Elm Street, Copycat and Seven have become the new classics in the genre of the horror film. With films like The People Under the Stairs, Nightmare on Elm Street, and New Nightmare, Wes Craven has proven himself to be a master of the creation of modern horror films. With recent masterpiece Scream, Craven shows his audience that he is not restricted by the typical conventions of the horror film. In most of these films, the background is set up before the killer does any actual slashing. However in Scream, Drew Barrymore's character is tormented by the killer from the film's very beginning and both she and her boyfriend are dead less than ten minutes after the opening credits. Craven manages to make Scream a film of less "fluff" and more substance than most thrillers. Recurring themes in the film, such as the lack of teens' seriousness, the callous nature of today's younger generation, the crossover and confusion between reality and movies, and the negative representation of television media not only add to the film's entertainment value, but also often portray a fairly accurate picture of twentieth century America. Despite all the film's blood and gore, Craven creates a comedic tone so successfully that at times the audience wonders whether Scream might be a comedy after all. Even though the safety of their small town has been shattered by a deranged serial killer, the characters do not seem to take the situation very seriously. The main characters are eating lunch at school the day after the first murders and, as might be expected, the killings make up the topic of their conversation. At one point, the character Randy turns to Tatem, and in a convincing imitation of Billy Crystal, he asks her, "Did they really find her liver in the mailbox? Because I heard they found her liver in the mailbox." Tatem and Sidney, the other female present and the movie's main character, cringe at this tasteless remark. Tatem'... ...ssuring that we remain productive m mbers of society (King 500). So, perhaps if you are in need of this type of therapy, or in search of an offbeat study in American popular culture, all that you need is a good horror film. Rent Scream or go to a movie theater to see the sequel. You will probably be surprised by what you see, and you might even be impressed. Works Cited Craven, Wes. Interview. Fresh Air. National Public Radio. KQED, San Francisco. 16 February 1998. King, Stephen. Ã £Why We Crave Horror Movies.? Common Culture. Petracca, Michael and Madeleine Sorapure, eds. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 1995. Pinedo, Isabel Cristina. Recreational Terror: Women and the Pleasures of Horror Film Viewing. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997. Works Consulted Grant, Barry Keith, editor. Planks of Reason: Essays on the Horror Film. London: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1984. Newman, Kim. Nightmare Movies. New York: Harmony Books, 1988. Riptov, S.A. Kidnapped Corpus Whasamat Univ. Press, 1984 Scream. Dir. Wes Craven. With David Arquette, Neve Campbell, Courteney Cox, Skeet Ulrich, and Drew Barrymore. Dimension Films, 1997.

The Effect of Different Isotopes on Atomic Mass (Chemistry Lab)

The Effect of Different Isotopes on Atomic Mass Introduction: An isotope is a variation of an atom that already exists. An isotope is different from an atom because of the number of neutrons in its nucleus. Finding the amount of neutrons in an atom can be calculated by subtracting the atomic number of a specific atom from its atomic mass. When looking at the periodic table, the atomic mass in the top left corner of every box is a decimal. The mass is in decimal format because the number listed is an average of that atom, plus all of its isotopes.Isotopes have different masses because neutrons weigh 1 amu where as an electrons weight would be negligible. The experiment described below shows how including all isotopes of one element effect the average atomic mass of the element. Materials: 1. Calculator 2. Whitium sample 3. Brownium sample 4. Blackium sample 5. 3 plastic cups 6. Electronic balance 7. Data table Procedure: 1. Separate the whitium, brownium, and blackium samples from eac h other. 2. Find the mass of 1 cup with the electronic balance. 3.Put the different samples in separate cups and count the number of beans in each cup; write those numbers in the data table. 4. Find the total number of beans. 5. Find the mass of each cup of beans (using the electronic balance) and subtract the mass of the cup. Write these numbers in the data table. 6. Divide the mass of each sample by its respective amount of beans to find the average mass of one bean. Write these numbers in the data table. 7. Divide the number of beans from 1 sample by the total number of beans to find the percent of the total that that particular isotope takes up.Do this for each of the samples. Record these numbers in the data table. 8. To find the average atomic mass of beanium, use the following formula: percent of balckium atoms†¢average mass of blackium percent of brownium atoms †¢average mass of brownium +percent of whitium atoms †¢average mass of whitium atomic mass of beaniu m Record this number in the data table. Results: Isotope| Number of beans (atoms)| Mass of beans (g)| Average mass of one bean (g)| Percent of beans| Average atomic mass of beanium| Blackium| 293| 65. 8| . 224| 62. 7%| . 43 g|Brownium | 104| 62. 5| . 60| 22. 3%| | Whitium | 70| 69. 2| . 99| 15%| | | Total: 467| | | | | To calculate the percentage of beans: Number of Beans of 1 IsotopeTotal Number of Beans To calculate the atomic mass of beanium: percent of balckium atoms†¢average mass of blackium percent of brownium atoms †¢average mass of brownium +percent of whitium atoms †¢average mass of whitium atomic mass of beanium Conclusion: In conclusion, an isotope is a variation of an element that already exists. It is different because it has more or less neutrons in its nucleus.Depending on how many isotopes one element has, the average atomic mass will change. When calculating the average atomic mass, you must include all of the isotopes which have more or less neutrons than the original element. Since neutrons have a mass of 1amu, the isotopes masses will vary, thus affecting the average atomic mass of an element. When performing this experiment, the mass of the beans were measured while the number of beans, average mass and percent of beans had to be calculated. The average mass of he beans, or isotopes, was a decimal because the weight of the beans in one sample divided by the number of beans of the same sample was not an even number. This lab simulates the various isotopes of an element because all of the beans were in the same ‘family’; however, they all looked different and had different masses. This is an example of how real elements have isotopes that may not look alike or have the same mass, but they’re still a part of that one element. As this experiment may have gotten the results shown above, when performing this experiment a second time, the results may vary.This is because not every bean is identical. If larger sa mples are used then the difference may be smaller because the larger the sample you have to work with, the closer your average will be to the actual mass. 1 source of error in this experiment may have been miscounting the number of beans. This may change the results of the 2, 4, and 5 columns of the data table. Another source of error may have been miscalculating the average mass of one bean. This would affect the answer for the atomic mass of beanium.

Numerical Analysis of Soil-Structure Interaction at Seismic Fault Pulses

Numeric Analysis of Soil-Structure Interaction at Seismic Fault Pulses Abstraction—Numeric analysis of soil–structure systems at seismal mistake pulsations has investigated. Vibration transmissibility of the soil–structure interaction has analysed for super-structures with different aspect ratios positioned on assorted dirt types and different foundations have studied. Soil construction interaction with geometric nonlinearity has been considered with forward directionality and fling measure types of mathematical seismal mistake pulsations. It has been analyzed that nonlinear SSI is tend to magnify the acceleration responses when subjected to low frequence incident pulsations below normalized threshold frequences. These thresholds associate with dirt categorization, so that different dirt type has assorted shear moving ridge speed. With increased shear wave speed of the implicit in dirt makes the threshold frequence additions. Keywords—Nonlinear soil–structure interaction, response analysis, seismal mistake, land daze, swaying isolation.IntroductionSHOCK and quiver isolation reduces the excitement transmitted to systems necessitating protection. An illustration is the interpolation of isolators between equipment and foundations back uping the equipment. The isolators act to cut down effects of support gesture on the equipment and to cut down effects of force transmitted by the equipment to the supporting construction. Isolators act by debaring and hive awaying energy at resonating frequences of the isolation system, thereby diminishing force degrees transmitted at higher frequences. The dampers act by dispersing energy to cut down the elaboration of forces that occur at resonance [ 1 ] . The chief thought in basal isolation is to cut down the seismal responses by infixing low–stiffness, high–damping constituents between the foundation and the construction [ 2 ] . This manner, th e natural period and damping of the construction will be increased, which can cut down the responses of the superstructure, particularly inter–story impetuss and floor accelerations [ 3 ] . Alternatively, base supplantings in those systems, particularly under near–fault land gestures, are increased [ 4 ] . The first concerns about this issue were arisen after 1992 Landers and so 1994 Northridge temblors, where long–period pulse–type land gestures were observed in near–fault records. Evidence show that temblor records in near–field parts may hold big energy in low frequences and can do drastic responses in base stray constructions [ 5 ] . Past surveies in the literature reveal that nonlinear soil– construction interaction ( SSI ) including foundation upheaval and dirt output can exhibit basal isolating effects due to hysteretic damping of the implicit in dirt. These effects can be important during strong land gestures when the superstr ucture is mounted on a shallow foundation with sufficiently low inactive perpendicular burden bearing safety factor [ 6 ] . On the other manus, geometry of the superstructure should besides enable the swaying gestures of the foundation to emerge as a singular manner of quiver in seismal public presentation of the soil–structure system. In such status, the so–called inverted–pendulum constructions [ 7 ] can profit from energy absorbing capacity of the implicit in dirt viz. swaying isolation. This context motivated Koh and Hsiung [ 8 ] , [ 9 ] to analyze base isolation benefits of 3D rocking and upheaval. In their surveies, three–dimensional cylindrical stiff block rested on a Winkler foundation of independent springs and dashpots were examined. They compared response of the theoretical account under earthquake–like excitements when the foundation was allowed to elate versus no–uplift status. It was concluded that curtailing upheaval can prese nt higher emphasiss and accelerations inside the construction. The purpose of this paper is shock response analysis of the soil– construction systems induced by near–fault pulsations. Vibration transmissibility of the soil–structure systems is evaluated utilizing daze response spectra ( SRS ) . An in–depth parametric survey is conducted. Medium–to–high rise edifices with different aspect ratios every bit good as foundations with different safety factors located on different dirt types are studied. Two types of near–fault land dazes with different pulsation periods every bit good as pulse amplitudes are selected as input excitement. Linear versus nonlinear SSI status are considered instead and the corresponding consequences are compared. II. N UMERICAL MODEL The soil–structure system modeled in this survey consists of multi–story constructing constructions based on surface mat foundation located on dirt medium. Numeric theoretical account subjected to near–fault land dazes is schematically illustrated in Fig. 1. A. Superstructure Shear edifice theoretical accounts are most normally used in research surveies on seismically isolated edifices. To this purpose, a generic simplified theoretical account is created to stand for a category of structural systems with a given natural period and distribution of stiffness over the height [ 10 ] . In this survey, the superstructure is a 3D shear constructing habitue in program and height to avoid the effects of geometrical dissymmetry. Requirements for including near–field effects are considered harmonizing to ASCE7–10 [ 11 ] . Dead and unrecorded tonss are assumed 600 and 200kg/m2, severally. The narrative tallness of 3.0mand figure of narratives equal to 10, 15, and 20 are selected in order to stand for medium–to–high–rise edifices that can rationally hold shallow foundations on different types of dirt medium. First–mode natural periods of fixed–base construction are 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0sfor 10– , 15– , and 20à ¢â‚¬â€œstory edifices, severally. These natural periods are consistent with approximative cardinal period expressions introduced in ASCE7–10. The analyses have been performed utilizing OpenSEES package [ 12 ] . Rayleigh theoretical account with muffling ratio equal to 5 % of critical damping is assigned to the superstructure. In this instance, superstructure elements are assumed with no ductileness and P–Delta geometrical nonlinearity is included. FIG 1 B. Interacting System The interacting system called infrastructure consists of soil– foundation ensemble which induces base–isolating effects to the construction. The foundation is a square mat with thickness of 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0mfor 10– , 15– , and 20–story edifices, severally. Brick elements are used to pattern the foundation. Dimensions of the foundation program were designed harmonizing to perpendicular burden bearing capacity of dirt medium. Therefore, different foundation program dimensions are calculated sing to different dirt types every bit good as different safety factors. The foundation is assumed to be inflexible and no embedment is considered in this survey. In order to see dirt effects, four types of dirt media with a broad scope of shear–wave speed (Volt) were considered to cover soft to really heavy dirt in conformity with site categorization introduced in ASCE7–10 [ 11 ] . The dirt is considered as a homogeneous half–space medium and is non modeled straight in this survey. Simplified theoretical accounts are used to enforce substructure effects including dirt flexibleness, radiation damping, tenseness cut–off, and dirt output on the foundation. The horizontal ( sway ) electric resistances can be straight obtained utilizing Cone theoretical account expressions [ 13 ] . However, swaying and perpendicular electric resistances, because of part of foundation upheaval and dirt output nonlinear effects, could non be straight calculated utilizing lumped theoretical account in perpendicular and rocking waies. In perpendicular and swaying waies, the foundation country is discretized over a sufficient figure of nodes. The discretization of foundation program country has been done in conformity with so–called subdisk method recommended by Wolf [ 14 ] to cipher perpendicular and swaying dynamic electric resistance of dirt. In order to allow the foundation upheaval and dirt output phenomena contribute in finite component mold of soil–structure system the perpendicular nonlinear elastic–perfectly fictile spread stuff is assigned to the perpendicular contact elements. FIG 2 III. MATHEMATICAL NEAR–FAULT PULSES Idealized pulsations, used in this survey, are described by sinusoidal maps proposed by Sasani and Bertero every bit good as Kalkan and Kunnath that represent fling measure and frontward directionality type of land gestures [ 15 ] , [ 16 ] . The mathematical preparations of the acceleration clip history of fling–step and forward–directivity pulsations are presented in ( 1 ) , and ( 2 ) , severally. Fling–Step Pulse whereCalciferoldenotes the maximal amplitude of the land supplanting derived by dual clip integrating of land acceleration, ( )Ta, and so T andThyminedenote pulse period and pulse reaching clip, severally.IPulse amplitude and pulse period are the two cardinal input parametric quantities of the idealised pulsation theoretical accounts. In this research, pulse–to–fixed–base construction period ratio (ThymineT ) is assumed to fall within 0.5 to 2.5. Within this scope, existent near–field records can be replaced by idealised pulsations and outstanding belongingss of structural response are captured with sensible estimate [ 17 ] , [ 18 ] . Furthermore, pulse amplitude matching to different excitement degrees varies from moderate to really strong land gestures in this survey. For this intent, peak land speed ( PGV ) varies from 20 to 220cm/sto stand for moderate to really strong land gestures, severally. In this survey, unidirectional excitement is exerted to th e base when the simplified pulse theoretical accounts of fling measure and forward directionality are used. IV. PARAMETRIC STUDY It is good known that the response of soil–structure system depends on geometric and dynamic belongingss of the construction and the beneath dirt. These effects can be incorporated into the studied theoretical account by the undermentioned non–dimensional parametric quantities [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] : where a0,hole,Hydrogen,Volt,Strontium, andBacillusbase for non– dimensional frequence, round frequence of the fixed–base construction, superstructure tallness, shear–wave speed of dirt, slenderness ratio, and breadth of the superstructure, in the same order. Non–dimensional frequence parametric quantity,a0, is introduced as an index for the structure–to–soil stiffness ratio. In this survey, this parametric quantity is assumed 0.25, 0.5, 1, and 2 to cover different degrees of dirt flexibleness. Harmonizing to ( 1 ) , the a0 peers to 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 is matching to shear–wave speed of dirt 754, 377, 188, and 94samarium, severally. Sing to ( 4 ) ,Strontiumparametric quantity bases for slenderness of + [ ] T + + the superstructure. In this paper, values of 2 and 4 are assigned toStrontiumparametric quantity in order to stand for low every bit good as highaandStrontium, are typically considered as the cardinal parametric quantities of the soil–aspect ratio. These two mentioned parametric quantities, 0structure system [ 19 ] . Besides, with respect to nonlinear SSI incorporated in this parametric survey, the undermentioned non– dimensional parametric quantity is besides considered: whereNitrogen,uouN, andSFdenote the dirt bearing capacity under strictly perpendicular inactive burden, the perpendicular applied burden, and factor of safety against perpendicular burden bearing of the foundation, severally.Degree fahrenheitis set equal to 1.2, 1.85, and 2.5 to stand for severely–loaded, instead heavily–loaded, and instead lightly–loaded foundations, severally [ 21 ] . For daze response analysis of the soil–structure system, maximal response acceleration at a givenIth narrative (MRA) is defined as time–domain utmost value of absolute response acceleration of theIth floor. Peak value ofMRAiialong tallness of the construction is defined asPMRA. This index is compared in two alternate linear every bit good as nonlinear SSI status as introduced in Fig. 2. In 2nd instance, foundation upheaval and dirt output is permitted during dynamic time–history analyses. Comparison of the two SSI status reveals swaying isolation effects of foundation upheaval and dirt output on commanding accelerations transmitted to the superstructure when subjected to near–fault land dazes. To quantify the rocking isolations effects of nonlinear SSI on commanding familial accelerations, the undermentioned index is defined: whereqacceldenotes maximal response acceleration ratio which is equal toPMRAat nonlinear SSI status,( NLSSI ) PMRA ( LSSI ) PMRAdivided by the same value at additive SSI status, . V. S HOCK RESPONSE SPECTRA ( SRS ) OF THE SOIL–STRUCTURE SYSTEMS Vibration transmissibility of the soil–structure systems is evaluated in this subdivision utilizing daze response spectrum. As illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4, the ordinate of each SRS curve represents theQratio as introduced in ( 6 ) . The abscissa T/Tof the SRS represents the ratio of the excitement pulsation continuanceaccelT to the natural periodThymineof the swaying isolation ( or natural period of swaying response of the foundation ) . Almost 16000 clip history analyses are performed in this survey. Consequently, the SRS braces with uninterrupted and dash lines in Figs. 3 and 4 represent mean and standard divergence ( s ) of the primary SRS curves ensemble, severally. The SRS braces are plotted with regard to different incident pulsation periods t to demo the consequence of daze strength. In Fig. 3 the consequence of dirt type on quiver transmissibility of the soil–structure systems is investigated through comparing SRSs for different values ofa, ( 3 ) . The consequences show that nonlinear SSI is likely to magnify the acceleration responses when subjected to long–period incident pulsations with0normalized period T/Ttranscending a threshold. It is shown that this threshold T/Tcorrelatives with dirt type. In more precise words, whenalessenings ( i.e. at more dense sites ) the threshold T/Tmoves to left as displayed in Fig. 3. For case, 0 the incident pulsation with normalized period greater than the threshold, T/T= 1.25, leads to response elaboration in a 10–story edifice located on really heavy site (a=0.25 ) . On the other manus, comparing single SRS curves on each graph of Fig. 3 reveals that increasing the land daze strength consequences in steeper inclines of SRSs. This fact shows that nonlinear SSI is more activated topic to incident pulsations with greater amplitudes. In Fig. 4 the consequence of incident pulsation type on quiver transmissibility of the soil–structure systems is examined through comparing SRSs of frontward directionality versus fling measure pulsations. The consequences show that long–period frontward directionality pulsations can ensue in important response elaboration, particularly when the pulse amplitude intensifies. In contrast, nonlinear SSI topic to short–period frontward directionality pulsations with high amplitudes can cut down the acceleration responses down to about 50 % for the 15–story edifice as presented in Fig. 4. In add-on, the two graphs of Fig. 4 depict that quiver transmissibility of nonlinear SSI is more period–dependent topic to send on directionality pulsations compared to fling measure land daze. VI. C ONCLUSION This paper concerns shock response analysis of the soil– construction systems induced by near–fault pulsations. To this terminal, quiver transmissibility of the soil–structure systems is evaluated utilizing daze response spectra. An in–depth parametric survey including about 16000 clip history analyses are performed. Medium–to–high rise edifices with different aspect ratios every bit good as foundations with different safety factors located on different dirt types are studied. Two types of near–fault land dazes, i.e. forward directionality and fling measure pulsations, with different pulsation periods every bit good as pulse amplitudes are selected as input excitement. Linear versus nonlinear SSI status are considered. Maximal response acceleration ratioQ is selected as quiver transmissibility index in additive compared to nonlinear SSI status. The consequences show that nonlinear SSI is likely to magnify the acceleration responses when subjected to long–period incident pulsations with normalized period T/Ttranscending a threshold. This threshold T/Tcorrelatives with dirt type, so that increasing shear–wave speed of the implicit in dirt, the threshold T/T lessenings. On the other manus, addition in land daze strength consequences in steeper inclines of SRSs, i.e. greater period dependence. Furthermore, comparing SRSs of frontward directionality versus fling measure pulsations reveals that long–period frontward directionality pulsations can ensue in important response elaboration, particularly when the pulse amplitude intensifies. In contrast, short–period frontward directionality pulsations with high amplitudes are significantly isolated. In add-on, quiver transmissibility of nonlinear SSI is more period–dependent topic to send on directionality pulsations compared to fling measure land daze. MentionsPiersol, A. G. , and Paez, T. L. , â€Å"Harris’ Shock and Vibration HandboOklahoma, † 6Thursdayed. , McGraw–Hill, New York, 2010.Skinner, R. I. , Robinson, W. H. , and McVerry, G. H. , â€Å"An debut to seismic isolation, † Wiley, Chichester, England, 1993.Naeim, F. , and Kelly, J. M. , â€Å"Design of seismal stray constructions: From theory to pattern, † Wiley, Chichester, England, 1999.Hall, J. F. , Heaton, T. H. , Halling, M. W. , and Wald, D. J. â€Å"Near–source land gesture and its effects on flexible edifices, †Earthquake Spectra, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 569– 605, 1995.Heaton, T. H. , Hall, J. F. , Wald, D. J. , and Halling, M. V. , â€Å"Response of high–rise and base–isolated edifices in a conjectural Mw 7.0 blind thrust temblor, †Science, vol. 267, pp. 206–211, 1995.Anastasopoulos, I. , Gazetas, G. , Loli, M. , Apostolou, M. , and Gerolymos, N. , â€Å"Soil failure can be used for sei smal protection of constructions, †Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering, vol. 8, pp. 309–326, 2010.Housner, G. W. , â€Å"The behaviour of upside-down pendulum constructions during temblors, †Bulletin of seismological society of America, vol. 53, no. 2: pp. 403–417, 1963.Koh, A. , and Hsiung, C. , â€Å"Base Isolation Benefits of 3–D Rocking and Uplift. I: Theory, †ASCE Journal of Engineering Mechanicss, vol. 117, no. 1, pp. 1–18, 1991.Koh, A. & A ; Hsiung, C. â€Å"Base Isolation Benefits of 3–D Rocking and Uplift. II: Numeric Example, †ASCE Journal of Engineering Mechanicss, vol. 117, no. 1, pp. 19–31, 1991.Alhan, C. , and Surmeli, M. , â€Å"Shear edifice representations of seismically stray edifices, †Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering, vol. 9, pp. 1643–1671, 2011.ASCE/SEI 7–10, â€Å"Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, † Published by American Society of Civil Engi neers, 2010.Fenves, G. L. , Mazzoni, S. , McKenna, F. , and Scott, M. H. , â€Å"Open System for Earthquake Engineering Simulation ( OpenSEES ), † Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California: Berkeley, CA, 2004.Wolf, J. P. , and Deeks, A. J. , â€Å"Foundation Vibration Analysis: a Strength–of–Materials Approach, † Elsevier publications, 2004.Wolf, J. P. , â€Å"Foundation Vibration Analysis Using Simple Physical Models, † Englewood Cliffs ( NJ ) : Prentice–Hall, pp. 293–307, 1994.Sasani, M. , and Bertero, V. â€Å"Importance of terrible pulse–type land gesture in performance–based technology: historical and critical reappraisal, † inProc. of the 12th universe conf. on temblor technology, New Zealand, no. 8, 2000.Kalkan, E. , Kunnath, S. K. , â€Å"Effects of Flinging Step and Forward Directivity on Seismic Response of Buildings, †Earthquake Spectra, vol. 22, pp. 367–390, 2006.Alavi, B. , and Krawinkler, H. , â€Å"Behavior of minute defying frame constructions subjected to near–fault land gestures, †Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, vol. 33, pp. 687–706, 2004.Sehhati, R. , Rodriguez–Marek, A. , ElGawady, M. , and Cofer, W. F. , â€Å"Effects of near–fault land gestures and tantamount pulsations on multi– narrative constructions, †Engineering Structures, vol. 33, pp. 767–779, 2011.

Free Essays on Technology And Crime

Technology and Crime In solving crimes or committing crimes technology plays a vital role. The method a criminal uses to victimize someone and way law enforcement catches criminals is all tied to advances in technology. The same computer that allows a hacker (a person who uses a computer for exploration and exploitation) to perpetrate a crime is also used to catch him. Computers have evolved into what is sometimes a nightmare for users. Computer criminals today will employ anything from spam, forgery emails, spyware and adware to harass users. On the other side of crime there is forensic DNA, which is a technology coming into play in a lot of legal cases. This paper will focus on a few of the aspects of each side of the scope of technology and crime. Computer crimes have evolved into a wide array of areas in which the internet has only enhanced. Crimes committed with computer use of the internet include; identity theft, use of stolen credit cards, online gambling, stalking (or cyber stalking), distribution of child pornography and hacking. Hackers are able use their technical expertise to commit crimes without anyone ever knowing. The intent of hackers is not always known. Some ideas stem from fired workers bitter with old employers to infecting a system with a virus (a program capable of altering or erasing a computers memory). Viruses can be very lethal in a network. The summer of 2000 the â€Å"I love you† bug hit computers in a huge way. The virus came in the form of a worm, which replicates itself when the message is opened. The worm replicates itself by accessing the address book in a network. Many networks use a global address system that contains thousands of addresses. This allowed the worm to replicate at a rate never seen before. Most systems were crippled for several days. Updated anti-virus software was needed to clean systems of the worm and prevents future replications... Free Essays on Technology And Crime Free Essays on Technology And Crime Technology and Crime In solving crimes or committing crimes technology plays a vital role. The method a criminal uses to victimize someone and way law enforcement catches criminals is all tied to advances in technology. The same computer that allows a hacker (a person who uses a computer for exploration and exploitation) to perpetrate a crime is also used to catch him. Computers have evolved into what is sometimes a nightmare for users. Computer criminals today will employ anything from spam, forgery emails, spyware and adware to harass users. On the other side of crime there is forensic DNA, which is a technology coming into play in a lot of legal cases. This paper will focus on a few of the aspects of each side of the scope of technology and crime. Computer crimes have evolved into a wide array of areas in which the internet has only enhanced. Crimes committed with computer use of the internet include; identity theft, use of stolen credit cards, online gambling, stalking (or cyber stalking), distribution of child pornography and hacking. Hackers are able use their technical expertise to commit crimes without anyone ever knowing. The intent of hackers is not always known. Some ideas stem from fired workers bitter with old employers to infecting a system with a virus (a program capable of altering or erasing a computers memory). Viruses can be very lethal in a network. The summer of 2000 the â€Å"I love you† bug hit computers in a huge way. The virus came in the form of a worm, which replicates itself when the message is opened. The worm replicates itself by accessing the address book in a network. Many networks use a global address system that contains thousands of addresses. This allowed the worm to replicate at a rate never seen before. Most systems were crippled for several days. Updated anti-virus software was needed to clean systems of the worm and prevents future replications...

The Hardest ACT Science Questions and Strategies to Solve Them

The Hardest ACT Science Questions and Strategies to Solve Them SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips In every section on the ACT, there are some questions that are more difficult than the others.Science is no different.However, unlike the math section, where the questions progress from easy to hard in a linear fashion, each of the 7 passages tends to have 1-2 hard questions that can appear at any point in the passage (though they tend to be the last questions of the passage). These problems may seem challenging at first glance, but they're really just slightly more challenging than the others if you use the right ACT Science strategies and tips that we'll be covering in this guide. Here's what distinguishes easy from hard questions. Most of the easier problems on the ACT Science section are data grab problems, where you simply find the one data point or the single line in the paragraph, and you have your answer. Occasionally, you have to interpret that data, but not in a complicated way. In contrast, themostchallenging ACT Science questions ask you to use multiple data points to come to an answer. They'll take you longer to answer and are harder to get right. Here are the question types I'll cover: Sneaky data grab questions Using multiple visuals to answer the question Using multiple data points within a single visual to answer the question Questions that require outside knowledge Hopefully by the end of this article, you'll feel able to conquer any hard question! Difficult Type #1: Sneaky Data Grab Questions Some sneaky data grab questions will require you to look in strange places for the answer to your question, such as the introduction! ACT makers assume that with such a short time frame (35 minutes to answer 40 questions) students will skip the introduction. If you have time management issues on ACT Science, my recommended strategy is to answer the questions without reading the passage, using the visuals alone, skipping the questionsyou can’t answer with visuals and saving them for the end of the passage.Read more about thestrategy by learning about the 3 types of ACT Science passages. However, when you do go back and skim, includethe introduction in your skimming.The introduction typically holds nuggets of gold. Check out this sneaky data grab ACT science practice question: There was nothing in the visuals to help you answer the question.You had to read this short introduction to find the answer: All four substances are carried down by precipitation, and the process is known as wet deposition.The question is still phrased in a slightly confusing way.In the introduction, it tells you what happens if there is precipitation; it fails to mention what happens when there is no precipitation. It's safe to assume since it wasn’t mentioned that what normally happens during precipitation will NOT happen without precipitation.So, there will be no wet deposition of the 4 substances since all 4 are normally carried down by precipitation. NOTE: Do not get tricked by the flip in relationship. The ACT Science section often asks these questions to trick you. Don’t rule out any part of the passage!Sometimes the answer will be where you least expect it. Difficult Type #2: Synthesize 2 or More Different Graphs While most questions on the ACT Science section only require you to use one data point within one visual, some of the more difficult questions require you to find more information.Like this question below: Start by analyzing the question. What is it asking you to find? When you look at a question, and it asks you about 2 different values, you should realize that this means you will need to grab and compare at least two different pieces of data.In this case, the question asks you about the pressure exerted by O2 at 6 L and at 3 L at 22 degrees Celsius, two different values, so you should be looking for at least those two pieces of data. The question specifically asks you to compare the pressure in 6 L vessel to the pressure in the 3 L vessel at "a given mass of O2." That phrase, "a given mass of O2," is code for at ANY mass of O2added. In order to find this data, you will need to use Figure 1 and 2 (as the question told you). Your next step should be to figure out the difference between Figure 1 and 2 (see what I did there?). Figure 1 represents the results from the 3 L vessel, and Figure 2 represents the results from the 6 L vessel.Knowing this,we now need to compare the pressure across all masses of O2added in the 3 L and 6 L vessels, since as I said above that is what the question is really asking. To do an appropriate comparison, I recommend grabbing 2-3 data points, preferably widespread. Zero is always a safe place to start. In this case, in both the 3 L and 6 L vessel the pressure at 0 g of O2added is 0 torr, which makes logical sense since no O2added means nothing to exert the pressure. Note: it is not important to understand the units. Next data point: let's look at 2 g of O2added. In the 3 L vessel, the pressure is 400 torr, while in the 6 L vessel the pressure is 200 torr. I recommended spreading out the data points, so for our last point, we will look at the maximum mass of O2added, 10 g. In the 3 L vessel, the pressure is 1800 torr, and in the 6 L vessel, the pressure is 900 torr.Below I have synthesized all of the data into a table, this way we can clearly see the comparison of the pressure in the 6 L vessel to the pressure in the 3 L vessel: So for any given amount of O2added (outside of 0), the pressure in the 6 L vessel is half the amount of pressure in the 3 L vessel.So, the answer is A. Do you get the gist here? As a recap, our strategy for solving this practice question was: we understood what the question was asking for (comparing pressure in 6L vs. 3L containers) we found the two graphs representing the 6L and 3L containers we found the O2 line for each graph we picked the same mass of gas added for both graphs and compared the O2 pressures to find that the ratio between the 6L and 3L container was 1:2 Let’s attack one more of these, taking it step-by-step: Let's first figure out what the question is asking of us. The phrasing of this question is slightly more confusing than the last one. It mentions Figure 1 and 2, so we know that we will need to look at both. However, this question doesn't ask for a specific number to look at on the graph, like 10 meters or 550 wavelengths. When this happens, it's harder to pick out the data. When no numbers are mentioned, look for words indicating value such as highest, lowest, biggest, smallest. These words imply numbers and comparisons and give you a hint on how to read the graph. Reading the question closely, we see the question is asking us to find the wavelength with the highest rate of photosynthesis and then see what its relative absorption of chlorophyll a and b are. Let's take this step-by-step. Start by figuring out the difference between Figure 1 and 2. Figure 1 shows the relative absorptions of chlorophyll a and b by wavelength. Figure 2 shows the rate of photosynthesis for a variety of wavelengths. Since, the question first mentions the wavelength with the highest rate of photosynthesis, we will start by using Figure 2 below: You need to find the graph’s maximum.The maximum is where the rate of photosynthesis is highest.The highest peak in rate of photosynthesis is at about 108% at a wavelength of 440 nm. Now, we have completed the first step.The next step is finding the relative absorption of chlorophyll a and b of a wavelength of 440 nm.Looking at Figure 1, it is a little tricky because the intervals of wavelength measure are different.Figure 2 begins at 400 measuring in 20 nm intervals until 720, whereas Figure 1 measures in 25 nm intervals from 400 to 750. Finding 440 nm on Figure 1, in between the second tick mark and 450 mark, we see the dotted line is at it’s maximum and the solid line is low but not at the minimum.Reading the key, we see the dotted line represents the relative absorption of chlorophyll a. The solid line represents the relative absorption of chlorophyll B.So, the relative absorption of chlorophyll A is at a maximum, and the relative absorption of chlorophyll B is low but not at a minimum. Thus, the answer is C. When you are looking at multiple visuals to answer a question, take the problem step-by-step: Start by finding what the question is asking you. Next, figure out the difference between the figures. Find one data point, then move to the next. Take your time and use process of elimination to help you. Difficult Type #3:Analyze Multiple Data Points Within a Single Visual This is one of the trickiest question types on the ACT Science section. And here is one of the hardest tough questions I’ve seen.Not only is the graph crazy, the question requires you to analyze four data points within the graph. Here is the question: Let's break it down. The question is asking you which of the answer choices has the highest intensity at a given frequency. As we discussed above, whenever a question states "at a given X," it means across all values of X.In other words,this question is asking you to pick the answer choice with the highest intensityacross all frequencies. There is a lot of information in the graph below, but the answer choices only require us to consider four conditions:in air or in water, and at S of 100% or at 10^-8%. Looking at the graph below, you may have no idea where to begin: Start by finding the locations of S 100% and S 10^-8% (it is completely fine that you don’t understand what these mean).I don’t even think the passage helped you understand what these mean.I don’t know what they mean, but I can still answer the question correctly. You see S 10^-8% is represented by the two vertical lines at the far left of the graph.S 100% is represented by the two vertical lines at the far right of the graph. Now, you need to locate intensity, since the question asked specifically which has the highest intensity.Intensity is measured on the x-axis.Both lines for S 10^-8 % have a measured intensity between -20 and 0 db (again, understanding the units is not important). Both lines for S 100% have a measured intensity between 180 and 220 db. The S 100% are at a higher intensity, so we can eliminate both S 10^-8% answer choices, G and J. Now, to decide between F and H, we need to figure out whether the intensity was greater in water or air.To do this, we need to distinguish which S 100% line represents water and which one represents air. According to the key, the small dotted line represents water, and the thicker line represents air.The small dotted line is just to the right of the thicker line, so it is at a higher intensity than the thicker line.S 100% in water has an intensity of approximately 205 db and S 100% in air has an intensity of approximately 195 db, so the answer is F. Look how far we've come since the beginning of this section? This graph looked indecipherable, but step by step we were able to break it down. This question is very do-able, you just need to be diligent in your graph reading (if you need more help with this skill check out our article on Factual Questions).Take the problem step-by-step, use process of elimination and check every part of the graph for information (every axis and key). Difficult Type #4:Questions That Require Outside Knowledge There are around 4 questions per test that you will not be able to answer correctly without outside knowledge.Check out our other article for an overview of the topics the ACT expects you to know.Without memorizing these topics, it will be nearly impossible to score between 33 and 36. Recap Hard questions are not that hard.They require the same skills as the easy questions, but you need to do more steps.These questions take longer because they're more complex. ACT Science Tips toremember for these hardest questions: Don’t rule out any part of the passage! Sometimes the answer will be where you least expect it such as in the introduction. Do not get tricked by the flip in relationship. The ACT Science section often asks these types of questions to trick you. When you are looking at multiple visuals to answer a question, take the problem step-by-step. Figure out what the question is asking you. Figure out which figures you need to use. Find one data point, then move to the next. Take your time and use process of elimination to help you. When pulling multiple data points from one visual, also take the problem step-by-step. Start by analyzing the question. Figure out which figures you need to use and the difference between them (one last time!). Use process of elimination. Look at every piece of the graph. Make sure to read keys and scan every axis. Study the topics that the ACT Science section expects you to know. What’s Next? I hope you feel ready to tackle any hard question the ACT Science section throws at you!As your next steps in studying for the ACT Science section,learnthe 3 types of ACT Science passages,the only actual science you need to know for ACT Science, andthe best way to study and practice for ACT Science. Like this article? Want to improve your ACT score by 4 points? Check out our best-in-class online ACT prep program. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your ACT score by 4 points or more. Our program is entirely online, and it customizes what you study to your strengths and weaknesses. If you liked this Sciencelesson, you'll love our program.Along with more detailed lessons, you'll get thousands ofpractice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Check out our 5-day free trial: